Exploring the role of Digital Technologies in Disaster Risk Reduction: The case of Road Traffic Acci

What are RTAs?

Road traffic accidents (RTAs) are a global scourge that claim numerous lives and injure many more. They are often instantaneous incidents, wreaking havoc in a matter of seconds. While they are preventable, Road Traffic Accidents (RTA) are the leading cause of death globally among those aged 15 to 29, with about 90% of the world’s fatalities occurring in low- and middle-income countries [1]. With about 20 to 50 million road traffic injuries every year, the economic impacts extend well beyond the transport sector, potentially translating into an additional cost of 15% to 22% of GDP per capita income growth over 24 years in low- and middle-income countries [1], [2]. This dire situation is further compounded by other everyday disasters and poor infrastructure in many, if not all, of these countries [3].

Fortunately, there remains a glimpse of hope. The World Health Organization (WHO) reports that the number of deaths caused by road traffic accidents has plateaued, reflecting the efforts being made to make roads safer [4]. The Decade of Action for Road Safety 2011-2020, a global framework for national-level action for road safety has facilitated a lot of improvements in road safety. However, motorization rates continue to increase, rendering road safety risks almost ever-present [4].

In many low- and middle-income countries, transportation is seen as a key driver, or even a prerequisite, for economic development [5]. Therefore, the risks and impacts of RTAs pose an interesting paradox to these countries. If the full benefits of transportation are to be realized, safety, effectiveness, and efficiency should be central to such a system. It is therefore important that we consider how we can mitigate, prepare for, respond to, and recover from RTAs.

Unpacking RTAs: Mitigating the Risks

One way of conceptualizing RTAs is with the emergency management cycle, which involves the practices taken to plan for and reduce, or avoid, the potential losses from hazards, assure prompt assistance to victims, and achieve rapid and effective recovery [6]. Mitigation is the first in the cycle, followed by preparedness, response, and recovery. Preparedness involves planning how to effectively respond and recover from incidents as and when they happen [7]. Preparedness activities include ambulance services, first aid kits, etc. In the response phase, actions are taken to reduce the impact of an event right before it happens or immediately after the incident occurs [7]. The response phase puts plans in the preparedness phase to action. The recovery phase is the last in the cycle; it refers to steps taken to return conditions to normal, enhancing protection against future hazards in the process [7]. In this piece, we consider the mitigation phase, which includes activities to reduce the impacts of incidents.

There are no standard interventions of mitigating RTAs which are suitable for all contexts and countries [8]. To understand the purpose of mitigation practices, we will look at three models: Haddon’s 10 countermeasures, World Health Organization’s 5 interventions, and the Haddon-matrix model of causal factors.

Exploring Haddon’s 10 countermeasures

For RTAs, one basic principle of interest is energy transfer. Formalized by Haddon in 1973 [9], the principle suggests that accidents “are caused by a transfer of energy between the human body and the environment” and the extent of damage correlates with the amount of energy transfer involved in a crash [8]. Haddon proceeds to explain ten countermeasures to the energy damage process. These countermeasures apply to all forms of damage caused by rapid energy releases. As such, these countermeasures provide a blueprint, if you will, to different stakeholders in the road traffic system on how to improve the overall safety of the system. They are briefly described below:

1. Prevent the marshalling of energy: The idea here is to prevent the risk from ever existing in the first place. An example of this approach would be to prevent the usage of vehicles completely to avoid the marshalling of energy. No vehicles on our roads, no road traffic accident.

2. Reduce the amount of energy marshalled: This countermeasure seeks to reduce the amount of energy in hopes of reducing the damage caused. Speed limit regulations fall under this category.

3. Prevent the release of energy: Here, elimination of the risk from an energy perspective is implied. For example, “preventing the descent of a skier” [9].

4. Modify the rate of spatial distribution of release of energy from source: This measure describes reducing the rates of energy release. An example would be reducing the slope of the skier.

5. Separate, in space or time, released energy from susceptible structure: An example would be the availability of sidewalks for pedestrians. Here, the susceptible structure is the vulnerable agent.

6. Separate, with material barrier, released energy from susceptible structure: Safety equipment typically serve the purpose of attenuating the energy released from events. An example would be wearing a shin guard while playing football.

7. Modify contact surface with susceptible structure: Here, the material is modified to reduce risks. Such modifications include rounding sharp surfaces and softening corners.

8. Strengthen susceptible structure: The goal of this countermeasure is to reduce losses in life and property by strengthening the vulnerable. An example would be building codes, which seek to ensure compliance with best practices and standards in safety.

9. Swiftly detect and evaluate damage: This measure aims at transferring signals of the incident for automatic deployment of a response action. For example, an airbag is automatically released upon impact.

10. Implement actions during emergency period following damage: This countermeasure includes post-incident response and recovery to normal state.

WHO 5 Interventions

The WHO identifies 5 groups of interventions that can be implemented to mitigate RTAs. Mitigation focuses on minimizing or eliminating both short-term and long-term risks from hazards by taking sustained actions [7]. Briefly described below are the 5 interventions: transport and land-use policies, road network optimization, visibility of road users, vehicle design optimization, compliance with road safety rules, and effective post-crash care [8].

1. Transport and Land-use policies: Strategies implemented in this focus area include the creation of high-density building complexes with easily-accessible services and amenities which serve to lessen the risk exposure of road users [8]. Reducing the distance traveled from point of origin to destination is also a strategy that can be employed to significantly reduce risk.

2. Road Network Optimization: This relates closely with urban planning, with questions such as how alternative transport modes can be made available for transportation. Intentionally designing roads to incorporate risk reduction goals is another strategy. Actions towards such a strategy include improving safety of single-lane carriageways and implementing measures to calm traffic.

3. Visibility of Road Users: Using daytime lights which improves visibility during daylight hours is a strategy that has been implemented in some countries. The report also highlights the importance of improving visibility for road users.

4. Compliance with Road Safety Rules: The focus here is on the regulatory framework within which to enforce road safety rules. It begins with a good assessment of the risks present in particular contexts and making policy interventions accordingly. Regulations include those covering usage of alcohol, seat belts, and helmets among others.

5. Delivery of Effective and Efficient Post-crash care: This intervention includes the readiness of first responders and the ability of public health facilities to cater for victims of accidents. Post-crash care also encompasses delivery of first-aid by standers-by who may save the lives of victims if they act swiftly.

The Haddon-matrix model of RTA causal factors

To identify general causes of RTAs, the Haddon-matrix [10] is utilized. The matrix identifies pre-incident, incident, and post-incident activities across human, vehicle (mechanical), and environmental factors. A case study conducted by Yitambe et al. in an urban area in Kenya will serve as an example of the model [3].

The specific causes may differ from place to place but the larger causes of RTAs may be categorized as environmental, behavioral, or mechanical. As Yitambe et al. describe, environmental causes were mostly weather-related comprising heavy rains which create slippery roads, landslides which reduce road sizes, or fog which reduces visibility for drivers [3]. Behavioral factors identified include intoxication, lack of driver experience, driver negligence of regulations, and excessive speeding. Mechanical factors identified were those related to the state of vehicles or roads and how that predisposes driver, passenger, and pedestrian to RTAs. Tampering with speedometers, inadequate tire pressure, poorly maintained vehicles, faulty brakes among others fall within this category.

The Role of Digital Technologies in Mitigating RTAs

Consolidating the three models discussed above helps us arrive at a more comprehensive approach of dealing with RTAs. Using the OECD’s work on digital transformation, it is possible to identify characteristics of digital products which could be leveraged to mitigate RTAs. Digital products bring scale, speed, and scope; soft capital; and ecosystems; these offer potential support for countermeasures proposed by Haddon, as well as the 5 interventions proposed by the WHO, mitigating RTAs in the process [11].

1. Scale, scope, and speed: The speed of digital networks provides a means of registering signals and processing them for actuation. Digital sensors used in vehicles can swiftly aggregate data to prompt drivers of impending risks, or even automatically reduce speed and hence energy, to reduce damage in the unfortunate event of an accident. The scope of digital technologies allows for this value to be experienced not just in cars but in bicycles and other forms of mobility, and even pedestrians through their mobile phones and devices -all of this connected to broaden the scope of safety and security with speed. All of this can be scaled at unprecedented levels because of the network effects of digital technologies, allowing for wider coverage and spillover effects.

2. Soft Capital: The idea of soft capital is in relation to the value of data created when digital versions of physical assets are analyzed. With data analytics tools, digital maps of cities can be generated to identify high risk zones where minimal vehicular activity will be entertained. The nature of digital technologies allows such value to be decoupled from specific geographic locations, facilitating value mobility to connected regions.

3. Ecosystems: RTAs as have been discussed are complex problems with multi-faceted causes, conditions, and effects. Solutions should therefore consider input from diverse sources. This is where platforms can prove useful. The interaction between different users, things, and data generated releases invaluable amounts of data, which if adequately managed and studied can provide useful insights for different stakeholders in the bid to mitigate RTAs.

Asoro: An Intelligent Platform

As briefly discussed in the previous section, digital technologies possess the ability to support many of the interventions discussed. The ability to encode different types of information digitally and transmit them via digital networks to distances far and wide can be harnessed for mitigation. Communication among different stakeholders in the emergency management cycle can be better enhanced with digital technologies, along with the optimization of key resources. For RTAs, we have seen how trip planning is critical to mitigation. Digital technologies can provide intelligent routing options with the goal of reducing congestions, time spent in transit, and money and fuel spent in transit at the same time. The spillover effects can also not be neglected. As the WHO reported, many countries lack robust data collection on road traffic incidents, limiting their ability to deal effectively with the scourge [4]. With advances in machine learning and artificial intelligence, large troughs of data become the key resource for generating insights that can serve urban planners, ambulance operators, and citizens at the same time. Against this backdrop, let’s introduce Asoro, an intelligent platform that aggregates and analyzes data to provide insights into traffic conditions, with a purpose of mitigating road traffic accidents.

What is it?

Asoro is proposed to be an intelligent platform which helps mitigate road traffic accidents by aggregating and analyzing data.

Who will use it?

Asoro will be used by different stakeholders at different levels of road safety. Below is a list adapted from Raemdonck et al. [10].

• Government (Road Safety Commission, Urban Planning, Parliament, etc.)

• Emergency Services (Fire service, Police, etc.)

• Road Users (Drivers, Pedestrians, etc.)

• Road Manufacturers (Engineers, etc.)

What are the components?

Asoro will utilize IoT to aggregate data from user vehicles, streetlights, and drones. The data will be stored on an open-access platform, visualized and analyzed using machine learning techniques.

How will it work?

Asoro will aggregate data from user vehicles, streetlights, and drones to provide insights such as:

• Intelligent live feed data stream: This will be utilized by drivers to plan their trips and stay vigilant in accident-prone areas.

• Live hazard mapping of accident-prone areas: This will be utilized by government and road manufacturing stakeholders to make structural improvements. Road users will benefit immensely from this; as will emergency services as they optimize their operations with these zones in mind.

• Reduce traffic congestion and shorten transit time: Reducing congestion and transit time reduces risk of RTAs and this can be achieved through intelligent routing provided through a platform like Asoro.

As noted, there are several spillover effects that emerge from the availability of data. Even though Asoro is very much still an idea in its infancy, the constituting technologies are all mature, making the proposed platform a stark possibility. There are issues of regulations, technical specifications, ethics, and cost that are not discussed in this piece.

Building Resilience through digital technologies

As a cycle, the strength of the emergency management approach lies in its ability to build resilience over time. Resilience describes the ability of a system to return to normality following varying degrees of alterations. Although RTAs wreak havoc in low- and middle-income countries, its perceived pivotal role as a necessary key economic driver places these countries in a rather dire situation where they must grapple with poor infrastructure and the inherent risks posed by these systems.

Digital technologies can serve as a core part of the solution. With the adoption rate of smartphones in low- and middle-income countries increasing, as well as the investment in digital networks, a convergence is capable of sparking innovation that will reduce the inherent risks in road transits. As Haddon notes, knowledge demystifies phenomena and human dependence on extrarational factors such as “chance”, “accident”, “fate”, etc. [9]. Digital technologies can help us capture data that will demystify RTAs, and in the process directly transfer responsibility for mitigation to us, not to “chance”.

Notes

[1] Atlas Magazine, “Road safety in 2017,” Atlas Magazine, 2017. [Online]. Available: http://www.atlas-mag.net/en/article/road-safety-in-2017. [Accessed: 27-May-2018].

[2] World Bank Group, “The High Toll of Traffic Injuries: Unacceptable and Preventable,” 2017.

[3] A. Yitambe, J. Okello, C. M. O. Nguka, C. Ochieng, and A. Pena del Valle, “Road Traffic Accidents as an Everyday Hazard: Kisii and Kisumu, Kenya,” in Disaster Risk Reduction - Cases from Urban Africa, M. Pelling and B. Wisner, Eds. 2009.

[4] World Health Organization, “Global status report on road safety,” p. 318, 2015.

[5] Ministry of Transport, “National Transport Policy,” no. February, 2008.

[6] C. Warfield, “The Disaster Management Cycle.” [Online]. Available: https://www.gdrc.org/uem/disasters/1-dm_cycle.html. [Accessed: 27-May-2018].

[7] FEMA, “Phases of Emergency Management.”

[8] World Health Organization, “Implementing specific interventions to prevent road traffic injuries,” in Road Traffic Injury Prevention: Training Manual, 2004, p. 76.

[9] W. Haddon, “Energy Damage and the Ten Countermeasure Strategies,” Hum. Factors, vol. 15, no. 4, pp. 355–366, 1973.

[10] K. Van Raemdonck, E. Novikova, F. Van Malderen, and C. Macharis, “The stakeholders and their criteria in road safety measures,” 2010.

[11] OECD, OECD Digital Economy Outlook 2017. Paris: OECD Publishing, 2017.